Post by Admin on Apr 21, 2018 23:50:10 GMT
OCEAN ACIDIFICATION---------------------------------
Ocean Acidification and Warming (Effects on Corals: Field Studies) -- Summary
www.co2science.org/subject/o/summaries/acidwarmcoralsfield.php
_Reference: Hughes, T.P., Baird, A.H., Dinsdale, E.A., Moltschaniwskyj, N.A., Pratchett, M.S., Tanner, J.E. and Willis, B.L. 2012. Assembly rules of reef corals are flexible along a steep climatic gradient. Current Biology 22: 736-741.
_"the flexibility in community composition that we document along latitudinal environmental gradients indicates that climate change is likely to result in a re-assortment of coral reef taxa rather than wholesale loss of entire reef ecosystems."
Mediterranean Cold-Water Corals Exposed to Ocean Acidification
www.co2science.org/articles/V17/N34/B2.php
_Reference: Movilla, J., Gori, A., Calvo, E., Orejas, C., Lopez-Sanz, A., Dominguez-Carrio, C., Grinyo, J. and Pelejero, C. 2014. Resistance of two Mediterranean cold-water coral species to low-pH conditions. Water 6: 59-67.
_The results of Movilla et al. - and those of the studies they cite - would tend to suggest that all should be well with L. pertusa and M. oculata in a moderately CO2-enriched world of the future.
CO2, Global Warming and Coral Reefs: Prospects for the Future
www.co2science.org/education/reports/corals/corals.php
-With respect to marine life -- and especially that of calcifying organisms such as corals and coccolithophores -- neither increases in temperature, nor increases in atmospheric CO2 concentration, nor increases in both of them together, have had any ill effects on the important processes of calcification and growth. In fact, out in the real world of nature, these processes have actually responded positively
The End of the Ocean Acidification Scare for Corals
www.co2science.org/articles/V20/oct/a7.php
_Reference: McCulloch, M.T., D'Olivo, J.P., Falter, J., Holcomb, M. and Trotter, J.A. 2017. Coral calcification in a changing world and the interactive dynamics of pH and DIC upregulation. Nature Communications 8: 15686, DOI:10.1038/ncomms15686.
_"pHcf upregulation occurs largely independent of changes in seawater carbonate chemistry, and hence ocean acidification," demonstrating "the ability of the coral to 'control' what is arguably one of its most fundamental physiological processes, the growth of its skeleton within which it lives."
Ocean Acidification (Effects on Marine Animals: Fish) -- Summary
www.co2science.org/subject/o/summaries/acidfish.php
_Reference: Murray, C.S., Malvezzi, A., Gobler, C.J. and Baumann, H. 2014. Offspring sensitivity to ocean acidification changes seasonally in a coastal marine fish. Marine Ecology Progress Series 504: 1-11.
_Murray et al. conclude their study "suggests that transgenerational acclimation to increasing CO2 levels is not just a laboratory phenomenon but likely comprises a common adaptive strategy in marine fish and other organisms coping with the biologically driven, natural pH and CO2 variability in coastal habitats."
Ocean Acidification Does Not Compromise the Ability of Fish to Cope with High Temperatures
www.co2science.org/articles/V21/mar/a14.php
_Reference: Clark, T.D., Roche, D.G., Binning, S.A., Speers-Roesch, B. and Sundin, J. 2017. Maximum thermal limits of coral reef damselfishes are size dependent and resilient to near-future ocean acidification. Journal of Experimental Biology 220: 3519-3526.
_"the heightened thermal limit and equivalent PCO2 tolerance of small individuals [observed under OA] provide evidence of an unexpected capacity to maintain physiological homeostasis from a young age," concluding that "ocean acidification will not impair the maximum thermal limits of reef fishes."
The Combined Impact of Hypoxia and Ocean Acidification on Four Estuarine Fishes
www.co2science.org/articles/V21/jan/a2.php
_Reference: Dixon, R.L., Grecay, P.A. and Targett, T.E. 2017. Responses of juvenile Atlantic silverside, striped killifish, mummichog, and striped bass to acute hypoxia and acidification: Aquatic surface respiration and survival. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 493: 20-30.
_ we can confidently conclude that the projected decline in oceanic pH resulting from humanity's combustion of hydrocarbon fuels will pose little, if any, threat to the four marine fishes examined here.
Ocean Acidification Fails to Impact the Behavior and Body Size of a Common Copepod
www.co2science.org/articles/V21/jan/a10.php
_Reference: Almén, A.-K., Brutemark, A., Jutfelt, F., Riebesell, U. and Engström-Öst, J. 2017. Ocean acidification causes no detectable effect on swimming activity and body size in a common copepod. Hydrobiologia 802: 235-243.
_"P. acuspes [does] not show sensitivity to near-future pCO2 levels."
Ocean Acidification and the Sagittal Otoliths of Marine Fish
www.co2science.org/articles/V12/N46/EDIT.php
_Reference: Checkley Jr., D.M., Dickson, A.G., Takahashi, M., Radich, J.A., Eisenkolb, N. and Asch, R. 2009. Elevated CO2 enhances otolith growth in young fish. Science 324: 1683.
_"for 7- to 8-day-old fish grown under 993 and 2558 ppm CO2, the areas of the otoliths were 7 to 9% and 15 to17% larger, respectively, than those of control fish grown under 380 ppm CO2."
Effects of Ocean Acidification on Otoliths of Larval Atlantic Cod
www.co2science.org/articles/V17/nov/a26.php
_Reference: Maneja, R.H., Frommel, A.Y., Geffen, A.J., Folkvord, A., Piatkowski, U., Chang, M.Y. and Clemmesen, C. 2013. Effects of ocean acidification on the calcification of otoliths of larval Atlantic cod Gadus morhua. Marine Ecology Progress Series 477: 251-258.
_"the increase in otolith calcification due to elevated pCO2 might be well within the natural variation in otolith sizes," which they say would enable the fish to maintain what they described as "normal functioning."
The Survival of a Pacific Krill Species Under Ocean Acidification
www.co2science.org/articles/V20/aug/a14.php
_Reference: Cooper, H.L., Potts, D.C. and Paytan, A. 2017. Effects of elevated pCO2 on the survival, growth, and moulting of the Pacific krill species, Euphausia pacifica. ICES Journal of Marine Science 74: 1005-1012.
_"E. pacifica survival is unlikely to decline as a direct response to future OA levels," adding that "since E. pacifica regularly experiences a range of pCO2 values during its diel migration, it probably has well-developed acid-base regulation systems, and these may enhance its survival when exposed to elevated pCO2 for long periods, and also during extreme though short-term pH declines."
How Phytoplankton Adapt to Ocean Acidification and Warming
www.co2science.org/articles/V18/mar/a15.php
_Reference: Schluter, L., Lohbeck, K.T., Gutowska, M.A., Groger, J.P., Riebesell, U. and Reusch, T.B.H. 2014. Adaptation of a globally important coccolithophore to ocean warming and acidification. Nature Climate Change 4: 1024-1030.
_"growth rates were up to 16% higher in populations adapted for one year [roughly 460 asexual generations] to warming when assayed at their upper thermal tolerance limit,"
Ocean Acidification, Marine Food Production, and Calcification
www.co2science.org/articles/V15/N43/EDIT.php
_Reference: McCarthy, A., Rogers, S.P., Duffy, S.J. and Campbell, D.A. 2012. Elevated carbon dioxide differentially alters the photophysiology of Thalassiosira pseudonana (Bacillariophyceae) and Emiliania huxleyi (Haptophyta). Journal of Phycology 48: 635-646.
_CO2 "fertilization effect on the growth rates of T. pseudonana and E. huxleyi ... observed at low light and nutrient repletion imparts these species with increased competitive ability under these conditions," which are characteristic of coastal ocean zones.
How Coccolithophorids Respond to Ocean Acidification
www.co2science.org/articles/V16/N45/B2.php
_Reference: Jin, P. Gao, K. and Beardall, J. 2013. Evolutionary responses of a coccolithophorid Gephyrocapsa oceanica to ocean acidification. Evolution 67: 1869-1878.
_"the coccolithophorid could adapt to ocean acidification with enhanced assimilations of carbon and nitrogen," becoming even more productive than it is now.
How Ocean Acidification and Hypoxia Impact a Benthic Foraminifer
www.co2science.org/articles/V19/jun/a2.php
_Reference: Wit, J.C., Davis, M.M., McCorkle, D.C. and Bernhard, J.M. 2016. A Short-term Survival Experiment Assessing Impacts of Ocean Acidification and Hypoxia on the Benthic Foraminifer Globobulimina Turgida. Journal of Foraminiferal Research 46: 25-33.
_neither reduced oxygen (hypoxia) nor elevated CO2 (OA) lowered G. turgida survivorship. In fact, they found just the opposite in the case of oxygen reduction, in that the "survival percentages for low-oxygen treatments were significantly higher than those for high-oxygen treatments," and this irrespective of what the pH of the ocean water was.
Ocean Acidification (Effects on Marine Plants: Macroalgae) -- Summary
www.co2science.org/subject/o/summaries/acidmacroalgae.php
_Reference: Fernández, P.A., Roleda, M.Y. and Hurd, C.L. 2015. Effects of ocean acidification on the photosynthetic performance, carbonic anhydrase activity and growth of the giant kelp Macrocystis pyrifera. Photosynthesis Research 124: 293-304.
_The results of Fernández et al.'s work -- plus the many other studies cited in this report above -- are encouraging in that they contrast with the seemingly never ending barrage of news stories predicting gloom and doom for marine life from ocean acidification. As demonstrated here, for many species, ocean acidification will be a non-problem ... and maybe even a blessing!
Warming Trumps Ocean Acidification in a Calcifying Green Algae
www.co2science.org/articles/V19/jun/a15.php
_Reference: Campbell, J.E., Fisch, J., Langdon, C. and Paul, V.J. 2016. Increased temperature mitigates the effects of ocean acidification in calcified green algae (Halimeda spp.). Coral Reefs 35: 357-368.
_moderate increases in temperature may serve to improve metabolic performance and mitigate the detrimental effects of ocean acidification.
The Combined Impact of Hypoxia and Acidifcation on a Noncalcifying Cnidarian
www.co2science.org/articles/V20/nov/a3.php
_Reference: Klein, S.G., Pitt, K.A., Nitschke, M.R., Goyen, S. Welsh, D.T., Suggett, D.J. and Carroll, A.R. 2017. Symbiodinium mitigate the combined effects of hypoxia and acidification on a noncalcifying cnidarian. Global Change Biology 23: 3690-3703.
_"by enhancing photosynthetic activity, exposure to elevated CO2 appears to [have] offset the negative effects of hypoxia in taxa that host Symbiodinium." And they thus conclude that their observations "suggest that Cassiopea sp., and perhaps other symbiotic noncalcifying cnidarians, may still thrive when hypoxia and acidification co-occur," adding that "noncalcifying cnidarians may be particularly advantaged in productive coastal waters that are subject to simultaneous hypoxia and acidification."
Ocean Acidification Impacts on Cnidarian-Dinoflagellate Symbioses
www.co2science.org/articles/V17/oct/a10.php
_Reference: Gibbin, E.M. and Davy, S.K. 2014. The photo-physiological response of a model cnidarian-dinoflagellate symbiosis to CO2-induced acidification at the cellular level. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 457: 1-7.
_"our results, along with those of Suggett et al. (2012), suggest that symbiotic sea anemones could not only survive ocean acidification, but also thrive under future conditions."
The Impact of Ocean Acidification on the Pearl Oyster
www.co2science.org/articles/V21/mar/a16.php
_Reference: Liu, W., Yu, Z., Huang, X., Shi, Y., Lin, J., Zhang, H., Yi, X. and He, M. 2017. Effect of ocean acidification on growth, calcification, and gene expression in the pearl oyster, Pinctada fucata. Marine Environmental Research 130: 174-180.
_the authors state that at the end of the 42 day experiment there was no significant difference in mean shell hardness, mean shell calcium content or the expression of calcification-related genes among the oysters growing in the 8.10 and 7.70 pH treatments.
Ocean Acidification Database
www.co2science.org/data/acidification/results.php
_Reference: www.co2science.org/data/acidification/results.php
_claims of impending marine species extinctions driven by increases in the atmosphere's CO2 concentration do not appear to be founded in empirical reality, based on the experimental findings we have analyzed above.
Ocean Acidification: How Bad Can it Get?
www.co2science.org/articles/V13/N17/EDIT.php
_Reference: Tans, P. 2009. An accounting of the observed increase in oceanic and atmospheric CO2 and an outlook for the future. Oceanography 22: 26-35.
_Based on his more modest projections of future atmospheric CO2 concentrations, Tans also finds the projected pH reduction of ocean waters in the year 2100 (as compared to preindustrial times) to be only one-half of the 0.4 value calculated by Feely et al., with a recovery to a reduction of only a tad over 0.1 pH unit by 2500, which is less than the range of pH values that are typical of today's oceans (8.231 in the Arctic Ocean minus 8.068 in the North Indian Ocean equals 0.163, according to Feely et al.).
The Ocean Acidification Fiction
www.co2science.org/articles/V12/N22/EDIT.php
_Reference: Pelejero, C., Calvo, E., McCulloch, M.T., Marshall, J.F., Gagan, M.K., Lough, J.M. and Opdyke, B.N. 2005. Preindustrial to modern interdecadal variability in coral reef pH. Science 309: 2204-2207.
_as best we can determine from their graphical representations of these two coral growth parameters, extension rates over the last 50 years of this period were about 12% greater than they were over the first 50 years, while calcification rates were approximately 13% greater over the last 50 years.
The Real Ocean Acidification Story
www.co2science.org/articles/V13/N9/EDIT.php
_Reference: Hendriks, I.E., Duarte, C.M. and Alvarez, M. 2010. Vulnerability of marine biodiversity to ocean acidification: A meta-analysis. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 86: 157-164.
_"biological processes can provide homeostasis against changes in pH in bulk waters of the range predicted during the 21st century."
Indirect Positive Effects of Ocean Acidification Can Overpower Sometimes Observed Direct Negative Effects
www.co2science.org/articles/V20/may/a8.php
_Reference: Connell, S.D., Doubleday, Z.A., Hamlyn, S.B., Foster, N.R., Harley, C.D.G., Helmuth, B., Kelaher, B.P., Nagelkerken, I., Sara, G. and Russell, B.D. 2017. How ocean acidification can benefit calcifiers. Current Biology 27: R95-R96.
_ "to date, most scientific thinking has focused on enriched CO2 as a stressor by way of its associated reduction in aqueous pH. Whilst a stressor can be defined as an environmental disturbance that affects organisms negatively, it only captures one direction of biological responses. Yet, as shown in this study, enriched CO2 can act positively. Carbon enrichment acts as a direct resource for photosynthetic organisms (Connell et al., 2013). Indirectly, therefore, increased CO2 can act as a resource to consumers via the provision of food and habitat."
PRODUCTIVITY-------------------------
Oceans (Productivity) 1982-96, accompanied by a similar upward trend in percent oxygen saturation of the surface water.
www.co2science.org/subject/o/summaries/oceanproductivity.php
_Reference: Arrigo, K.R., van Dijken, G. and Pabi, S. 2008. Impact of a shrinking Arctic ice cover on marine primary production. Geophysical Research Letters 35: 10.1029/2008GL035028.
_Reference: Smith Jr., W.O. and Comiso, J.C. 2008. Influence of sea ice on primary production in the Southern Ocean: A satellite perspective. Journal of Geophysical Research 113: 10.1029/2007JC004251.
_By means of the protocol they pursued, Arrigo et al. were able to determine that "annual primary production in the Arctic increased yearly by an average of 27.5 Tg C per year since 2003 and by 35 Tg C per year between 2006 and 2007," 30% of which total increase was attributable to decreased minimum summer ice extent and 70% of which was due to a longer phytoplankton growing season. Arrigo et al. thus conclude that if the trends they discovered continue, "additional loss of ice during Arctic spring could boost productivity >3-fold above 1998-2002 levels."
_During the nine years (1997-2006) analyzed in the [Smith and Comiso (2008)] study, "productivity in the entire Southern Ocean showed a substantial and significant increase," which increase can be calculated from the graphical representation of their results as ~17% per decade. In commenting on their findings, the two researchers note that "the highly significant increase in the productivity of the entire Southern Ocean over the past decade implies that long-term changes in Antarctic food webs and biogeochemical cycles are presently occurring," which changes we might add are positive.
_In light of these several real-world observations, we not only find no indications of any widespread decline in oceanic productivity over the 20th century in response to climate-alarmist-feared increases in air temperature and CO2 concentration, we see evidence that just the opposite is occurring, thanks to these very same environmental changes, which are actually proving to be beneficial.
The Positive Externalities of Carbon Dioxide: Estimating the Monetary Benefits of Rising Atmospheric CO2 Concentrations on Global Food Production
www.co2science.org/education/reports/co2benefits/co2benefits.php
_Reference: www.co2science.org/education/reports/co2benefits/co2benefits.php
_Rising global population has led to rising CO2 emissions and rising CO2 emissions have benefited food production [with food production outpacing population growth].
The State of Earth's Terrestrial Biosphere: How is it Responding to Rising Atmospheric CO2 and Warmer Temperatures?
www.co2science.org/education/reports/greening/greening.php
_Reference: www.co2science.org/education/reports/greening/greening.php
_The vigor of Earth's terrestrial biosphere has been increasing with time, revealing a great greening of the planet that extends throughout the entire globe.
_The atmosphere's rising CO2 content is most likely the primary cause of the observed greening trends.
_ Factoring in the plant productivity gains expected to occur as a result of the aerial fertilization effect of the rising atmospheric CO2 concentration, plus its transpiration-reducing effect that boosts plant water use efficiency, the world's vegetation is seen to possess the ideal mix of ingredients to reap a tremendous benefit.
SEA LEVEL RISE-------------------------
Putting Future Projections of Coastal California Sea Level Rise Projections in Context
www.co2science.org/articles/V21/apr/a1.php
_Reference: Parker, A. and Ollier, C.D. 2017. California sea level rise: Evidence based forecasts vs. model predictions. Ocean & Coastal Management 149: 198-209.
_ "at present rates of sea level rises and accelerations, the time needed to [reach the National Research Council's high end projections] of sea level rise along the coast of California is 912 years," which would require "a warming of 9.88 °C" based on IPCC sensitivity parameters. [The alarmist models] "are founded on pure speculation, constructed on unproven assumptions, and do not provide a suitable basis for use in planning or policy making."
4. Global Warming-Induced Sea Level Rise: Good or Bad for Corals?
www.co2science.org/education/reports/corals/p1ch4.php
_Reference: www.co2science.org/education/reports/corals/p1ch4.php
_the sea level rises predicted to result from CO2-induced global warming should actually be beneficial, permitting increased growth in these growth-restricted areas. In the words of Chadwick-Furman (1996), “many coral reefs have already reached their upward limit of growth at present sea level
Global Sea Level Behavior of the Past Two Centuries
www.co2science.org/articles/V17/N20/C1.php
_Reference: Jevrejeva, S., Moore, J.C., Grinsted, A., Matthews, A.P. and Spada, G. 2014. Trends and acceleration in global and regional sea levels since 1807. Global and Planetary Change 113: 11-22.
_What was learned. Quoting the five researchers, "the new reconstruction suggests a linear trend of 1.9 ± 0.3 mm/yr during the 20th century" and "1.8 ± 0.5 mm/yr for the period 1970-2008."
_What it means. Although some regions have recently experienced much greater rates of sea level rise, such as the Arctic (3.6 mm/yr) and Antarctic (4.1 mm/yr), with the mid-1980s even exhibiting a rate of 5.3 mm/yr (Holgate, 2007), this newest analysis of the most comprehensive data set available suggests that there has been no dramatic increase - or any increase, for that matter - in the mean rate of global sea level rise due to the historical increase in the atmosphere's CO2 concentration.
A Century of Sea Level Rise At New Zealand
www.co2science.org/articles/V7/N13/C1.php
_Reference: Hannah, J. 2004. An updated analysis of long-term sea level change in New Zealand. Geophysical Research Letters 31: 10.1020/2003GL019166.
_The results of this carefully conducted study would appear to reflect the consequences of the non-accelerating warming of the globe over the past century or more that has brought about the gradual demise of the Little Ice Age.
Comparing Earth's Sea-Level and Energy Budgets
www.co2science.org/articles/V15/N1/C1.php
_Reference: Church, J.A., White, N.J., Konikow, L.F., Domingues, C.M., Cogley, J.G., Rignot, E., Gregory, J.M., van den Broeke, M.R., Monaghan, A.J. and Velicogna, I. 2011. Revisiting the earth's sea-level and energy budgets from 1961 to 2008. Geophysical Research Letters 38: 10.1029/2011GL048794.
_"from 1972 to 2008, the observed sea-level rise (1.8 ± 0.2 mm/year from tide gauges alone and 2.1 ± 0.2 mm/year from a combination of tide gauges and altimeter observations) ... the mean rate-of-rise of earth's global ocean appears to have remained remarkably constant ever since 1972.
Rate of Sea Level Rise: Predictions vs. Measurements
www.co2science.org/articles/V15/N31/C1.php
_Reference: Boretti, A.A. 2012. Short term comparison of climate model predictions and satellite altimeter measurements of sea levels. Coastal Engineering 60: 319-322.
_Boretti writes that the huge deceleration of SLR over the last 10 years "is clearly the opposite of what is being predicted by the models," and that "the SLR's reduction is even more pronounced during the last 5 years." To illustrate the importance of his findings, he notes that "in order for the prediction of a 100-cm increase in sea level by 2100 to be correct, the SLR must be almost 11 mm/year every year for the next 89 years," but he notes that "since the SLR is dropping, the predictions become increasingly unlikely," especially in view of the facts that (1) "not once in the past 20 years has the SLR of 11 mm/year ever been achieved," and that (2) "the average SLR of 3.1640 mm/year is only 20% of the SLR needed for the prediction of a one meter rise to be correct."
A History and Projection of Global Sea Level
www.co2science.org/articles/V7/N5/C3.php
_Reference: Morner, N.-A. 2004. Estimating future sea level changes from past records. Global and Planetary Change 40: 49-54.
_"there is no fear of any massive future flooding as claimed in most global warming scenarios."
Methane Hydrates and Global Sea Level
www.co2science.org/articles/V2/N24/C4.php
_Reference: Bratton, J.F. 1999. Clathrate eustasy: Methane hydrate melting as a mechanism for geologically rapid sea-level fall. Geology 27: 915-918.
_the combined effects of methane hydrate melting and subhydrate gas release would lead to a significant decline in global sea level, conservatively estimated to range from 0.1 to 1.5 meter
Further Confirmation Southern Ocean Sea Ice is Expanding
www.co2science.org/articles/V21/mar/a12.php
_Reference: De Santis, A., Maier, E., Gomez, R and Gonzalez, I. 2017. Antarctica, 1979-2016 sea ice extent: total versus regional trends, anomalies, and correlation with climatological variables. International Journal of Remote Sensing 38: 7566-7584.
_ the observed increase in sea ice extent is "mostly due to the thermodynamic effect of winds," which "push and crack the sea ice exposing liquid water to freeze, and thus causing the expansion of the sea ice area by transportation of ice blocks due to the air friction and exposing open water to freeze." Additionally, they say that the winds "transport colder airflow from the high latitudes, generating a feedback loop system [of] 'expands-freezes-expands' which inhibits the heat flow from the ocean to the atmosphere."
MISC.-------------------------
Extreme Weather Events: Are they Influenced by Rising Atmospheric CO2?
www.co2science.org/education/reports/extremewx/introduction.php
_Reference: www.co2science.org/education/reports/extremewx/introduction.php
_[This] work provides a detailed analysis of trends in three key categories of extreme weather events, floods, droughts, and storms, finding no compelling evidence to support the claim of a CO2-indcuded influence on these extreme weather events. Scientific analysis and observation prove otherwise.
Mathematical Models vs. Real-World Data: Which Best Predicts Earth's Climatic Future?
www.co2science.org/education/reports/models/models.php
_Reference: www.co2science.org/education/reports/models/models.pdf
_we find (and document) a total of 2,418 failures of today’s top-tier climate models to accurately hindcast a whole host of climatological phenomena. And with this extremely poor record of success, one must greatly wonder how it is that anyone would believe what the climate models of today project about earth’s climate of tomorrow, i.e., a few decades to a century or more from now.
The Debilitating Disease of Climate Alarmism
www.co2science.org/articles/V14/N28/EDIT.php
_Reference: Searle, K. and Gow, K. 2011. Do concerns about climate change lead to distress? International Journal of Climate Change Strategies and Management 2: 362-379.
_Searle and Gow (2011) further note that the Australian Psychological Society is taking this body of findings very seriously, noting that the Society states in a tip sheet (APS, 2009) that "although environmental threats are real and can be frightening, remaining in a state of heightened distress is not helpful for ourselves or for others."
_... there is absolutely no question but that the responsibility for the resultant widespread and growing state of irrational depression, anxiety and stress that is manifesting itself throughout the world can be laid squarely at the doorstep of those who peddle climatic doom and gloom, and that the perverse results of their perturbing of the psyches of millions of people will bring nothing but anguish and remorse as rewards for their woefully misguided efforts.
Carbon Dioxide and Global Warming: Where We Stand on the Issue
www.co2science.org/about/position/globalwarming.php
Chairman co2science.org/about/chairman.php
President co2science.org/about/president.php
Vice President www.co2science.org/about/vice_president.php
CO2 Science: The Most Prolific Think Tank of Climate Skepticism
www.co2science.org/articles/V19/jan/a25.php
Sea levels are rising, but not because of climate change
www.sott.net/article/385876-Sea-levels-are-rising-but-not-because-of-climate-change
We just had two years of record-breaking cooling world-wide
www.sott.net/article/385900-We-just-had-two-years-of-record-breaking-cooling-world-wide-dont-try-and-tell-the-global-warming-people
Ocean Acidification and Warming (Effects on Corals: Field Studies) -- Summary
www.co2science.org/subject/o/summaries/acidwarmcoralsfield.php
_Reference: Hughes, T.P., Baird, A.H., Dinsdale, E.A., Moltschaniwskyj, N.A., Pratchett, M.S., Tanner, J.E. and Willis, B.L. 2012. Assembly rules of reef corals are flexible along a steep climatic gradient. Current Biology 22: 736-741.
_"the flexibility in community composition that we document along latitudinal environmental gradients indicates that climate change is likely to result in a re-assortment of coral reef taxa rather than wholesale loss of entire reef ecosystems."
Mediterranean Cold-Water Corals Exposed to Ocean Acidification
www.co2science.org/articles/V17/N34/B2.php
_Reference: Movilla, J., Gori, A., Calvo, E., Orejas, C., Lopez-Sanz, A., Dominguez-Carrio, C., Grinyo, J. and Pelejero, C. 2014. Resistance of two Mediterranean cold-water coral species to low-pH conditions. Water 6: 59-67.
_The results of Movilla et al. - and those of the studies they cite - would tend to suggest that all should be well with L. pertusa and M. oculata in a moderately CO2-enriched world of the future.
CO2, Global Warming and Coral Reefs: Prospects for the Future
www.co2science.org/education/reports/corals/corals.php
-With respect to marine life -- and especially that of calcifying organisms such as corals and coccolithophores -- neither increases in temperature, nor increases in atmospheric CO2 concentration, nor increases in both of them together, have had any ill effects on the important processes of calcification and growth. In fact, out in the real world of nature, these processes have actually responded positively
The End of the Ocean Acidification Scare for Corals
www.co2science.org/articles/V20/oct/a7.php
_Reference: McCulloch, M.T., D'Olivo, J.P., Falter, J., Holcomb, M. and Trotter, J.A. 2017. Coral calcification in a changing world and the interactive dynamics of pH and DIC upregulation. Nature Communications 8: 15686, DOI:10.1038/ncomms15686.
_"pHcf upregulation occurs largely independent of changes in seawater carbonate chemistry, and hence ocean acidification," demonstrating "the ability of the coral to 'control' what is arguably one of its most fundamental physiological processes, the growth of its skeleton within which it lives."
Ocean Acidification (Effects on Marine Animals: Fish) -- Summary
www.co2science.org/subject/o/summaries/acidfish.php
_Reference: Murray, C.S., Malvezzi, A., Gobler, C.J. and Baumann, H. 2014. Offspring sensitivity to ocean acidification changes seasonally in a coastal marine fish. Marine Ecology Progress Series 504: 1-11.
_Murray et al. conclude their study "suggests that transgenerational acclimation to increasing CO2 levels is not just a laboratory phenomenon but likely comprises a common adaptive strategy in marine fish and other organisms coping with the biologically driven, natural pH and CO2 variability in coastal habitats."
Ocean Acidification Does Not Compromise the Ability of Fish to Cope with High Temperatures
www.co2science.org/articles/V21/mar/a14.php
_Reference: Clark, T.D., Roche, D.G., Binning, S.A., Speers-Roesch, B. and Sundin, J. 2017. Maximum thermal limits of coral reef damselfishes are size dependent and resilient to near-future ocean acidification. Journal of Experimental Biology 220: 3519-3526.
_"the heightened thermal limit and equivalent PCO2 tolerance of small individuals [observed under OA] provide evidence of an unexpected capacity to maintain physiological homeostasis from a young age," concluding that "ocean acidification will not impair the maximum thermal limits of reef fishes."
The Combined Impact of Hypoxia and Ocean Acidification on Four Estuarine Fishes
www.co2science.org/articles/V21/jan/a2.php
_Reference: Dixon, R.L., Grecay, P.A. and Targett, T.E. 2017. Responses of juvenile Atlantic silverside, striped killifish, mummichog, and striped bass to acute hypoxia and acidification: Aquatic surface respiration and survival. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 493: 20-30.
_ we can confidently conclude that the projected decline in oceanic pH resulting from humanity's combustion of hydrocarbon fuels will pose little, if any, threat to the four marine fishes examined here.
Ocean Acidification Fails to Impact the Behavior and Body Size of a Common Copepod
www.co2science.org/articles/V21/jan/a10.php
_Reference: Almén, A.-K., Brutemark, A., Jutfelt, F., Riebesell, U. and Engström-Öst, J. 2017. Ocean acidification causes no detectable effect on swimming activity and body size in a common copepod. Hydrobiologia 802: 235-243.
_"P. acuspes [does] not show sensitivity to near-future pCO2 levels."
Ocean Acidification and the Sagittal Otoliths of Marine Fish
www.co2science.org/articles/V12/N46/EDIT.php
_Reference: Checkley Jr., D.M., Dickson, A.G., Takahashi, M., Radich, J.A., Eisenkolb, N. and Asch, R. 2009. Elevated CO2 enhances otolith growth in young fish. Science 324: 1683.
_"for 7- to 8-day-old fish grown under 993 and 2558 ppm CO2, the areas of the otoliths were 7 to 9% and 15 to17% larger, respectively, than those of control fish grown under 380 ppm CO2."
Effects of Ocean Acidification on Otoliths of Larval Atlantic Cod
www.co2science.org/articles/V17/nov/a26.php
_Reference: Maneja, R.H., Frommel, A.Y., Geffen, A.J., Folkvord, A., Piatkowski, U., Chang, M.Y. and Clemmesen, C. 2013. Effects of ocean acidification on the calcification of otoliths of larval Atlantic cod Gadus morhua. Marine Ecology Progress Series 477: 251-258.
_"the increase in otolith calcification due to elevated pCO2 might be well within the natural variation in otolith sizes," which they say would enable the fish to maintain what they described as "normal functioning."
The Survival of a Pacific Krill Species Under Ocean Acidification
www.co2science.org/articles/V20/aug/a14.php
_Reference: Cooper, H.L., Potts, D.C. and Paytan, A. 2017. Effects of elevated pCO2 on the survival, growth, and moulting of the Pacific krill species, Euphausia pacifica. ICES Journal of Marine Science 74: 1005-1012.
_"E. pacifica survival is unlikely to decline as a direct response to future OA levels," adding that "since E. pacifica regularly experiences a range of pCO2 values during its diel migration, it probably has well-developed acid-base regulation systems, and these may enhance its survival when exposed to elevated pCO2 for long periods, and also during extreme though short-term pH declines."
How Phytoplankton Adapt to Ocean Acidification and Warming
www.co2science.org/articles/V18/mar/a15.php
_Reference: Schluter, L., Lohbeck, K.T., Gutowska, M.A., Groger, J.P., Riebesell, U. and Reusch, T.B.H. 2014. Adaptation of a globally important coccolithophore to ocean warming and acidification. Nature Climate Change 4: 1024-1030.
_"growth rates were up to 16% higher in populations adapted for one year [roughly 460 asexual generations] to warming when assayed at their upper thermal tolerance limit,"
Ocean Acidification, Marine Food Production, and Calcification
www.co2science.org/articles/V15/N43/EDIT.php
_Reference: McCarthy, A., Rogers, S.P., Duffy, S.J. and Campbell, D.A. 2012. Elevated carbon dioxide differentially alters the photophysiology of Thalassiosira pseudonana (Bacillariophyceae) and Emiliania huxleyi (Haptophyta). Journal of Phycology 48: 635-646.
_CO2 "fertilization effect on the growth rates of T. pseudonana and E. huxleyi ... observed at low light and nutrient repletion imparts these species with increased competitive ability under these conditions," which are characteristic of coastal ocean zones.
How Coccolithophorids Respond to Ocean Acidification
www.co2science.org/articles/V16/N45/B2.php
_Reference: Jin, P. Gao, K. and Beardall, J. 2013. Evolutionary responses of a coccolithophorid Gephyrocapsa oceanica to ocean acidification. Evolution 67: 1869-1878.
_"the coccolithophorid could adapt to ocean acidification with enhanced assimilations of carbon and nitrogen," becoming even more productive than it is now.
How Ocean Acidification and Hypoxia Impact a Benthic Foraminifer
www.co2science.org/articles/V19/jun/a2.php
_Reference: Wit, J.C., Davis, M.M., McCorkle, D.C. and Bernhard, J.M. 2016. A Short-term Survival Experiment Assessing Impacts of Ocean Acidification and Hypoxia on the Benthic Foraminifer Globobulimina Turgida. Journal of Foraminiferal Research 46: 25-33.
_neither reduced oxygen (hypoxia) nor elevated CO2 (OA) lowered G. turgida survivorship. In fact, they found just the opposite in the case of oxygen reduction, in that the "survival percentages for low-oxygen treatments were significantly higher than those for high-oxygen treatments," and this irrespective of what the pH of the ocean water was.
Ocean Acidification (Effects on Marine Plants: Macroalgae) -- Summary
www.co2science.org/subject/o/summaries/acidmacroalgae.php
_Reference: Fernández, P.A., Roleda, M.Y. and Hurd, C.L. 2015. Effects of ocean acidification on the photosynthetic performance, carbonic anhydrase activity and growth of the giant kelp Macrocystis pyrifera. Photosynthesis Research 124: 293-304.
_The results of Fernández et al.'s work -- plus the many other studies cited in this report above -- are encouraging in that they contrast with the seemingly never ending barrage of news stories predicting gloom and doom for marine life from ocean acidification. As demonstrated here, for many species, ocean acidification will be a non-problem ... and maybe even a blessing!
Warming Trumps Ocean Acidification in a Calcifying Green Algae
www.co2science.org/articles/V19/jun/a15.php
_Reference: Campbell, J.E., Fisch, J., Langdon, C. and Paul, V.J. 2016. Increased temperature mitigates the effects of ocean acidification in calcified green algae (Halimeda spp.). Coral Reefs 35: 357-368.
_moderate increases in temperature may serve to improve metabolic performance and mitigate the detrimental effects of ocean acidification.
The Combined Impact of Hypoxia and Acidifcation on a Noncalcifying Cnidarian
www.co2science.org/articles/V20/nov/a3.php
_Reference: Klein, S.G., Pitt, K.A., Nitschke, M.R., Goyen, S. Welsh, D.T., Suggett, D.J. and Carroll, A.R. 2017. Symbiodinium mitigate the combined effects of hypoxia and acidification on a noncalcifying cnidarian. Global Change Biology 23: 3690-3703.
_"by enhancing photosynthetic activity, exposure to elevated CO2 appears to [have] offset the negative effects of hypoxia in taxa that host Symbiodinium." And they thus conclude that their observations "suggest that Cassiopea sp., and perhaps other symbiotic noncalcifying cnidarians, may still thrive when hypoxia and acidification co-occur," adding that "noncalcifying cnidarians may be particularly advantaged in productive coastal waters that are subject to simultaneous hypoxia and acidification."
Ocean Acidification Impacts on Cnidarian-Dinoflagellate Symbioses
www.co2science.org/articles/V17/oct/a10.php
_Reference: Gibbin, E.M. and Davy, S.K. 2014. The photo-physiological response of a model cnidarian-dinoflagellate symbiosis to CO2-induced acidification at the cellular level. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 457: 1-7.
_"our results, along with those of Suggett et al. (2012), suggest that symbiotic sea anemones could not only survive ocean acidification, but also thrive under future conditions."
The Impact of Ocean Acidification on the Pearl Oyster
www.co2science.org/articles/V21/mar/a16.php
_Reference: Liu, W., Yu, Z., Huang, X., Shi, Y., Lin, J., Zhang, H., Yi, X. and He, M. 2017. Effect of ocean acidification on growth, calcification, and gene expression in the pearl oyster, Pinctada fucata. Marine Environmental Research 130: 174-180.
_the authors state that at the end of the 42 day experiment there was no significant difference in mean shell hardness, mean shell calcium content or the expression of calcification-related genes among the oysters growing in the 8.10 and 7.70 pH treatments.
Ocean Acidification Database
www.co2science.org/data/acidification/results.php
_Reference: www.co2science.org/data/acidification/results.php
_claims of impending marine species extinctions driven by increases in the atmosphere's CO2 concentration do not appear to be founded in empirical reality, based on the experimental findings we have analyzed above.
Ocean Acidification: How Bad Can it Get?
www.co2science.org/articles/V13/N17/EDIT.php
_Reference: Tans, P. 2009. An accounting of the observed increase in oceanic and atmospheric CO2 and an outlook for the future. Oceanography 22: 26-35.
_Based on his more modest projections of future atmospheric CO2 concentrations, Tans also finds the projected pH reduction of ocean waters in the year 2100 (as compared to preindustrial times) to be only one-half of the 0.4 value calculated by Feely et al., with a recovery to a reduction of only a tad over 0.1 pH unit by 2500, which is less than the range of pH values that are typical of today's oceans (8.231 in the Arctic Ocean minus 8.068 in the North Indian Ocean equals 0.163, according to Feely et al.).
The Ocean Acidification Fiction
www.co2science.org/articles/V12/N22/EDIT.php
_Reference: Pelejero, C., Calvo, E., McCulloch, M.T., Marshall, J.F., Gagan, M.K., Lough, J.M. and Opdyke, B.N. 2005. Preindustrial to modern interdecadal variability in coral reef pH. Science 309: 2204-2207.
_as best we can determine from their graphical representations of these two coral growth parameters, extension rates over the last 50 years of this period were about 12% greater than they were over the first 50 years, while calcification rates were approximately 13% greater over the last 50 years.
The Real Ocean Acidification Story
www.co2science.org/articles/V13/N9/EDIT.php
_Reference: Hendriks, I.E., Duarte, C.M. and Alvarez, M. 2010. Vulnerability of marine biodiversity to ocean acidification: A meta-analysis. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 86: 157-164.
_"biological processes can provide homeostasis against changes in pH in bulk waters of the range predicted during the 21st century."
Indirect Positive Effects of Ocean Acidification Can Overpower Sometimes Observed Direct Negative Effects
www.co2science.org/articles/V20/may/a8.php
_Reference: Connell, S.D., Doubleday, Z.A., Hamlyn, S.B., Foster, N.R., Harley, C.D.G., Helmuth, B., Kelaher, B.P., Nagelkerken, I., Sara, G. and Russell, B.D. 2017. How ocean acidification can benefit calcifiers. Current Biology 27: R95-R96.
_ "to date, most scientific thinking has focused on enriched CO2 as a stressor by way of its associated reduction in aqueous pH. Whilst a stressor can be defined as an environmental disturbance that affects organisms negatively, it only captures one direction of biological responses. Yet, as shown in this study, enriched CO2 can act positively. Carbon enrichment acts as a direct resource for photosynthetic organisms (Connell et al., 2013). Indirectly, therefore, increased CO2 can act as a resource to consumers via the provision of food and habitat."
PRODUCTIVITY-------------------------
Oceans (Productivity) 1982-96, accompanied by a similar upward trend in percent oxygen saturation of the surface water.
www.co2science.org/subject/o/summaries/oceanproductivity.php
_Reference: Arrigo, K.R., van Dijken, G. and Pabi, S. 2008. Impact of a shrinking Arctic ice cover on marine primary production. Geophysical Research Letters 35: 10.1029/2008GL035028.
_Reference: Smith Jr., W.O. and Comiso, J.C. 2008. Influence of sea ice on primary production in the Southern Ocean: A satellite perspective. Journal of Geophysical Research 113: 10.1029/2007JC004251.
_By means of the protocol they pursued, Arrigo et al. were able to determine that "annual primary production in the Arctic increased yearly by an average of 27.5 Tg C per year since 2003 and by 35 Tg C per year between 2006 and 2007," 30% of which total increase was attributable to decreased minimum summer ice extent and 70% of which was due to a longer phytoplankton growing season. Arrigo et al. thus conclude that if the trends they discovered continue, "additional loss of ice during Arctic spring could boost productivity >3-fold above 1998-2002 levels."
_During the nine years (1997-2006) analyzed in the [Smith and Comiso (2008)] study, "productivity in the entire Southern Ocean showed a substantial and significant increase," which increase can be calculated from the graphical representation of their results as ~17% per decade. In commenting on their findings, the two researchers note that "the highly significant increase in the productivity of the entire Southern Ocean over the past decade implies that long-term changes in Antarctic food webs and biogeochemical cycles are presently occurring," which changes we might add are positive.
_In light of these several real-world observations, we not only find no indications of any widespread decline in oceanic productivity over the 20th century in response to climate-alarmist-feared increases in air temperature and CO2 concentration, we see evidence that just the opposite is occurring, thanks to these very same environmental changes, which are actually proving to be beneficial.
The Positive Externalities of Carbon Dioxide: Estimating the Monetary Benefits of Rising Atmospheric CO2 Concentrations on Global Food Production
www.co2science.org/education/reports/co2benefits/co2benefits.php
_Reference: www.co2science.org/education/reports/co2benefits/co2benefits.php
_Rising global population has led to rising CO2 emissions and rising CO2 emissions have benefited food production [with food production outpacing population growth].
The State of Earth's Terrestrial Biosphere: How is it Responding to Rising Atmospheric CO2 and Warmer Temperatures?
www.co2science.org/education/reports/greening/greening.php
_Reference: www.co2science.org/education/reports/greening/greening.php
_The vigor of Earth's terrestrial biosphere has been increasing with time, revealing a great greening of the planet that extends throughout the entire globe.
_The atmosphere's rising CO2 content is most likely the primary cause of the observed greening trends.
_ Factoring in the plant productivity gains expected to occur as a result of the aerial fertilization effect of the rising atmospheric CO2 concentration, plus its transpiration-reducing effect that boosts plant water use efficiency, the world's vegetation is seen to possess the ideal mix of ingredients to reap a tremendous benefit.
SEA LEVEL RISE-------------------------
Putting Future Projections of Coastal California Sea Level Rise Projections in Context
www.co2science.org/articles/V21/apr/a1.php
_Reference: Parker, A. and Ollier, C.D. 2017. California sea level rise: Evidence based forecasts vs. model predictions. Ocean & Coastal Management 149: 198-209.
_ "at present rates of sea level rises and accelerations, the time needed to [reach the National Research Council's high end projections] of sea level rise along the coast of California is 912 years," which would require "a warming of 9.88 °C" based on IPCC sensitivity parameters. [The alarmist models] "are founded on pure speculation, constructed on unproven assumptions, and do not provide a suitable basis for use in planning or policy making."
4. Global Warming-Induced Sea Level Rise: Good or Bad for Corals?
www.co2science.org/education/reports/corals/p1ch4.php
_Reference: www.co2science.org/education/reports/corals/p1ch4.php
_the sea level rises predicted to result from CO2-induced global warming should actually be beneficial, permitting increased growth in these growth-restricted areas. In the words of Chadwick-Furman (1996), “many coral reefs have already reached their upward limit of growth at present sea level
Global Sea Level Behavior of the Past Two Centuries
www.co2science.org/articles/V17/N20/C1.php
_Reference: Jevrejeva, S., Moore, J.C., Grinsted, A., Matthews, A.P. and Spada, G. 2014. Trends and acceleration in global and regional sea levels since 1807. Global and Planetary Change 113: 11-22.
_What was learned. Quoting the five researchers, "the new reconstruction suggests a linear trend of 1.9 ± 0.3 mm/yr during the 20th century" and "1.8 ± 0.5 mm/yr for the period 1970-2008."
_What it means. Although some regions have recently experienced much greater rates of sea level rise, such as the Arctic (3.6 mm/yr) and Antarctic (4.1 mm/yr), with the mid-1980s even exhibiting a rate of 5.3 mm/yr (Holgate, 2007), this newest analysis of the most comprehensive data set available suggests that there has been no dramatic increase - or any increase, for that matter - in the mean rate of global sea level rise due to the historical increase in the atmosphere's CO2 concentration.
A Century of Sea Level Rise At New Zealand
www.co2science.org/articles/V7/N13/C1.php
_Reference: Hannah, J. 2004. An updated analysis of long-term sea level change in New Zealand. Geophysical Research Letters 31: 10.1020/2003GL019166.
_The results of this carefully conducted study would appear to reflect the consequences of the non-accelerating warming of the globe over the past century or more that has brought about the gradual demise of the Little Ice Age.
Comparing Earth's Sea-Level and Energy Budgets
www.co2science.org/articles/V15/N1/C1.php
_Reference: Church, J.A., White, N.J., Konikow, L.F., Domingues, C.M., Cogley, J.G., Rignot, E., Gregory, J.M., van den Broeke, M.R., Monaghan, A.J. and Velicogna, I. 2011. Revisiting the earth's sea-level and energy budgets from 1961 to 2008. Geophysical Research Letters 38: 10.1029/2011GL048794.
_"from 1972 to 2008, the observed sea-level rise (1.8 ± 0.2 mm/year from tide gauges alone and 2.1 ± 0.2 mm/year from a combination of tide gauges and altimeter observations) ... the mean rate-of-rise of earth's global ocean appears to have remained remarkably constant ever since 1972.
Rate of Sea Level Rise: Predictions vs. Measurements
www.co2science.org/articles/V15/N31/C1.php
_Reference: Boretti, A.A. 2012. Short term comparison of climate model predictions and satellite altimeter measurements of sea levels. Coastal Engineering 60: 319-322.
_Boretti writes that the huge deceleration of SLR over the last 10 years "is clearly the opposite of what is being predicted by the models," and that "the SLR's reduction is even more pronounced during the last 5 years." To illustrate the importance of his findings, he notes that "in order for the prediction of a 100-cm increase in sea level by 2100 to be correct, the SLR must be almost 11 mm/year every year for the next 89 years," but he notes that "since the SLR is dropping, the predictions become increasingly unlikely," especially in view of the facts that (1) "not once in the past 20 years has the SLR of 11 mm/year ever been achieved," and that (2) "the average SLR of 3.1640 mm/year is only 20% of the SLR needed for the prediction of a one meter rise to be correct."
A History and Projection of Global Sea Level
www.co2science.org/articles/V7/N5/C3.php
_Reference: Morner, N.-A. 2004. Estimating future sea level changes from past records. Global and Planetary Change 40: 49-54.
_"there is no fear of any massive future flooding as claimed in most global warming scenarios."
Methane Hydrates and Global Sea Level
www.co2science.org/articles/V2/N24/C4.php
_Reference: Bratton, J.F. 1999. Clathrate eustasy: Methane hydrate melting as a mechanism for geologically rapid sea-level fall. Geology 27: 915-918.
_the combined effects of methane hydrate melting and subhydrate gas release would lead to a significant decline in global sea level, conservatively estimated to range from 0.1 to 1.5 meter
Further Confirmation Southern Ocean Sea Ice is Expanding
www.co2science.org/articles/V21/mar/a12.php
_Reference: De Santis, A., Maier, E., Gomez, R and Gonzalez, I. 2017. Antarctica, 1979-2016 sea ice extent: total versus regional trends, anomalies, and correlation with climatological variables. International Journal of Remote Sensing 38: 7566-7584.
_ the observed increase in sea ice extent is "mostly due to the thermodynamic effect of winds," which "push and crack the sea ice exposing liquid water to freeze, and thus causing the expansion of the sea ice area by transportation of ice blocks due to the air friction and exposing open water to freeze." Additionally, they say that the winds "transport colder airflow from the high latitudes, generating a feedback loop system [of] 'expands-freezes-expands' which inhibits the heat flow from the ocean to the atmosphere."
MISC.-------------------------
Extreme Weather Events: Are they Influenced by Rising Atmospheric CO2?
www.co2science.org/education/reports/extremewx/introduction.php
_Reference: www.co2science.org/education/reports/extremewx/introduction.php
_[This] work provides a detailed analysis of trends in three key categories of extreme weather events, floods, droughts, and storms, finding no compelling evidence to support the claim of a CO2-indcuded influence on these extreme weather events. Scientific analysis and observation prove otherwise.
Mathematical Models vs. Real-World Data: Which Best Predicts Earth's Climatic Future?
www.co2science.org/education/reports/models/models.php
_Reference: www.co2science.org/education/reports/models/models.pdf
_we find (and document) a total of 2,418 failures of today’s top-tier climate models to accurately hindcast a whole host of climatological phenomena. And with this extremely poor record of success, one must greatly wonder how it is that anyone would believe what the climate models of today project about earth’s climate of tomorrow, i.e., a few decades to a century or more from now.
The Debilitating Disease of Climate Alarmism
www.co2science.org/articles/V14/N28/EDIT.php
_Reference: Searle, K. and Gow, K. 2011. Do concerns about climate change lead to distress? International Journal of Climate Change Strategies and Management 2: 362-379.
_Searle and Gow (2011) further note that the Australian Psychological Society is taking this body of findings very seriously, noting that the Society states in a tip sheet (APS, 2009) that "although environmental threats are real and can be frightening, remaining in a state of heightened distress is not helpful for ourselves or for others."
_... there is absolutely no question but that the responsibility for the resultant widespread and growing state of irrational depression, anxiety and stress that is manifesting itself throughout the world can be laid squarely at the doorstep of those who peddle climatic doom and gloom, and that the perverse results of their perturbing of the psyches of millions of people will bring nothing but anguish and remorse as rewards for their woefully misguided efforts.
Carbon Dioxide and Global Warming: Where We Stand on the Issue
www.co2science.org/about/position/globalwarming.php
Chairman co2science.org/about/chairman.php
President co2science.org/about/president.php
Vice President www.co2science.org/about/vice_president.php
CO2 Science: The Most Prolific Think Tank of Climate Skepticism
www.co2science.org/articles/V19/jan/a25.php
Sea levels are rising, but not because of climate change
www.sott.net/article/385876-Sea-levels-are-rising-but-not-because-of-climate-change
We just had two years of record-breaking cooling world-wide
www.sott.net/article/385900-We-just-had-two-years-of-record-breaking-cooling-world-wide-dont-try-and-tell-the-global-warming-people